The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is one of the most complex and enduring disputes in modern history. Rooted in historical, religious, political and territorial issues, the conflict has its roots in the late 19th century, with the emergence of two nationalist movements: Zionism, which aimed at the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, and Arab nationalism, which opposed any form of foreign or colonial rule in Arab territories.

The origins of the conflict (19th century – 1947)

In the 19th century, Palestine was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. During this period, the Zionist movement, founded by Theodor Herzl, promoted the creation of a homeland for the Jewish people in response to the widespread anti-Semitism in Europe. Beginning in the late 19th century, increasing numbers of European Jews began to emigrate to Palestine, arousing opposition from the local Arab population.

The situation was further complicated by the Balfour Declaration of 1917, in which the British government expressed its support for the creation of a‘national home for the Jewish people‘ in Palestine. After the First World War, Palestine became a mandate of the League of Nations under British administration, with the task of implementing this declaration.

In the 1920s and 1930s, Jewish immigration increased significantly, fuelled by persecution in Europe and then by the growing Nazi threat. The local Arab population, fearful of becoming a minority in their own land, organised protests and riots against the British presence and Jewish immigration. Between 1936 and 1939, the Great Arab Revolt occurred, a major uprising against British rule and Jewish settlement.

The Partition Plan and the Birth of Israel (1947-1949)

In 1947, the United Nations proposed a partition plan that envisaged the creation of two separate states, one Jewish and one Arab, with Jerusalem under international control. While the Jewish leadership accepted the plan, the Arab leadership categorically rejected it as unjust.

The partition plan promoted by the United Nations in 1947, accepted by the Israeli leadership, but rejected by the Arab leadership. As can be seen, this was an extremely favourable balance for the Arab community.

The stalemate was unilaterally broken by the Israelis: on 14 May 1948, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed the birth of the State of Israel. The next day, a coalition of Arab states, including Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Iraq, declared war on Israel, starting the first Arab-Israeli war. The conflict ended in 1949 with an armistice that saw Israel expand its territory compared to the partition plan, while the West Bank was annexed by Jordan and the Gaza Strip came under Egyptian control. Hundreds of thousands of Palestinians were displaced or fled during the conflict, giving rise to the Palestinian refugee problem.

Comparison of the Partition Plan of 1947 and the Armistice of 1949

The Israeli occupation and subsequent wars (1956-1982)

In the following years, Israel was involved in several conflicts with its Arab neighbours:

• Suez Crisis (1956): Israel, together with France and the UK, attacked Egypt in response to Gamal Abdel Nasser’s nationalisation of the Suez Canal.
• Six Day War (1967): Israel launched a pre-emptive strike against Egypt, Jordan and Syria, conquering the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights and the Sinai Peninsula. This war marked the beginning of the Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories.
• Yom KippurWar (1973): Egypt and Syria again attacked Israel during the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur, but were repulsed after heavy fighting.

During the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel conquered the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights and the Sinai Peninsula. All these territories, with the exception of Sinai, remain under Israeli occupation.

These conflicts consolidated Israeli control over the occupied territories, but also aggravated Palestinian and Arab resentment.

After the end of the war, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 338, which confirmed the principle of‘land for peace‘ established in Resolution 242, initiating the Middle East peace process. The Arab defeat played an important role in the willingness of the PLO (Palestine Liberation Organisation) to pursue a negotiated solution to the conflict, while many Israelis began to believe that the occupied territories could not be maintained indefinitely by force.

The Camp David Accords, agreed by Israel and Egypt in 1978, mainly aimed at establishing a peace treaty between the two countries. The agreements also proposed the creation of an ‘Autonomous Authority’ for the Arab population of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, excluding Jerusalem, which would remain under Israeli control. A peace treaty based on these agreements was signed in 1979, leading to Israel’s withdrawal from the occupied Sinai Peninsula by 1982.

The War in Lebanon (1982)

The Lebanon War of 1982 represents a significant step in the Israeli-Palestinian question, during which Israel undertook a large-scale military intervention to dismantle the PLO’s political and military power in southern Lebanon. After years of Palestinian-led attacks from Lebanese territory and subsequent Israeli retaliation, the operation culminated in the defeat of most Palestinian militants, the capture of Beirut by Israeli forces, and the relocation of the PLO headquarters to Tunis by decision of Yasser Arafat. This intervention marked an attempt by Israel to eliminate the PLO as an interlocutor in negotiations, to reduce the threat along its northern borders, and to consolidate control over the occupied territories as part of its political and military strategy in the region.

The Intifades and the Peace Process (1987-2000)

In 1987, the First Intifada, a popular uprising against the Israeli occupation, broke out. This uprising led to the foundation of Hamas, an Islamist organisation that opposed both the Israeli occupation and the peace process with Israel.

The Oslo Accords of 1993 represented a crucial moment in the attempt to resolve the conflict. Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) mutually recognised each other, and the Palestinian Authority was established to govern parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. However, the negotiations failed to resolve fundamental issues such as the status of Jerusalem, final borders, and the right of return for Palestinian refugees.

In 2000, another peace attempt failed during the Camp David summit, and in the same year, the Second Intifada broke out, characterised by large-scale violence.

The contemporary conflict (2005-present)

In 2005, under the leadership of Ariel Sharon, Israel unilaterally withdrew from the Gaza Strip, but retained control of its borders and airspace. The following year, Hamas won the Palestinian legislative elections, leading to a rift between Hamas and Fatah, the dominant party in the West Bank. Since then, the Gaza Strip has been the scene of numerous conflicts between Israel and Hamas, with heavy civilian casualties on both sides.

International efforts to broker a lasting peace, including UN plans and US initiatives, have failed to resolve the conflict. Tensions have further increased with Israeli settlement expansion policies in the occupied territories, which are considered illegal under international law.

Recent events: the 7 October 2023 attack and Israel’s response

The terrorist attack launched by Hamas on 7 October 2023 marked a dramatic escalation. The operation, dubbed ‘Al-Aqsa’, saw thousands of rockets hit Israel, along with armed incursions into kibbutzim and civilian events, causing around 1,400 casualties. Israel’s reaction, dubbed ‘Iron Swords’, involved large-scale bombardments in the Gaza Strip, launching a ground offensive and drawing tens of thousands of reservists.

These developments have also rekindled tensions on other fronts, such as the Lebanese border, where Hezbollah’s presence and Iran’s involvement have widened the scope of the conflict.

The 2025 truce: a step forward, but not the solution

After months of violence, the truce of 15 January 2025 represents a potential turning point. The agreement, brokered by the US and France, is in three phases, with an initial 42-day ceasefire and the gradual release of 33 hostages by Hamas. In return, Israel should gradually reduce its military presence in Gaza.

However, this truce does not address the central issues of the conflict, including the Palestinians’ right to self-determination, Israel’s security, and the fate of the occupied territories. History shows that such agreements risk being fragile, especially in a context where tensions are fuelled by years of mutual distrust.

A conflict involving regional and international actors

The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is not limited to a local dispute. Countries such as Iran, Egypt and Saudi Arabia play crucial roles in supporting the different parties. The Abraham Agreements of 2020, which normalised relations between Israel and a number of Arab countries (the United Arab Emirate, Bahrain, Oman, and later Morocco), and indirectly started the process of normalising relations between Israel and Saudi Arabia, are considered by some observers as one of the factors that drove the axis represented by the regime in Tehran, Hezbollah, Hamas, and Houthi to raise regional tension.

Now the need for international commitment

The 2025 truce shows that even in the most dramatic situations, it is possible to reach an agreement. However, without a strategy that addresses the root causes of the conflict, any solution risks being temporary. It is essential that the international community(Arab countries included, primarily Saudi Arabia) promote a two-state solution, based on mutual recognition and respect for international law.

Recent events also highlight the urgency of reforming local leadership. Benjamin Netanyahu‘s policy, focused on security and the illusion of a permanent stalemate, has been criticised for failing to prevent the Hamas attack, while the Hamas approach, based on armed struggle and the use of Palestinian civilians as human shields and sacrificial victims of a regional conflict, does not represent the aspirations of Palestinian society.

PS. A mention deserves to be made of the Plan proposed by Donald Trump in January 2020, during his first presidential term, accepted then by Israeli PM Netanyahu but rejected by the Palestinians. Trump’s return to the White House may result in that plan re-emerging from the drawers, at least as a starting point. We shall see.

‘Vision for Peace’: theTrump Administration’s planunveiled in January 2020